{
  "updated": "2026-08-17",
  "interfaces": [
    {
      "name": "Planar high-density MEA",
      "geometry": "2D surface",
      "strength": "High channel density and mature tooling",
      "constraint": "Samples the tissue-facing surface",
      "examples": "DishBrain; Brainoware; temporal-pattern BNN",
      "source": "https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2521560123"
    },
    {
      "name": "Embedded 3D flexible array",
      "geometry": "Electronics through a 3D culture",
      "strength": "Recording and stimulation across multiple planes",
      "constraint": "Fabrication and tissue integration are complex",
      "examples": "3D-MIND",
      "source": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-026-01608-1"
    },
    {
      "name": "Shape-conformal porous framework",
      "geometry": "3D shell around organoid",
      "strength": "Near-complete surface coverage; 240 addressable electrodes reported",
      "constraint": "Surface access still differs from full volumetric access",
      "examples": "Liu et al. 2026",
      "source": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41551-026-01620-y"
    },
    {
      "name": "Multilayer mesh MEA",
      "geometry": "Stacked electrode planes",
      "strength": "Depth-resolved activity across organoid layers",
      "constraint": "Discrete planes rather than continuous volume",
      "examples": "Kim et al. 2026",
      "source": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41378-026-01328-8"
    },
    {
      "name": "Remote organoid MEA platform",
      "geometry": "Organoid coupled to maintained MEA infrastructure",
      "strength": "Long-running remote stimulation and recording",
      "constraint": "Shared infrastructure and finite experimental capacity",
      "examples": "FinalSpark Neuroplatform",
      "source": "https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2024.1376042/full"
    },
    {
      "name": "Microfluidic network shaping",
      "geometry": "Patterned modular 2D networks",
      "strength": "Controls connectivity and suppresses excessive global synchrony",
      "constraint": "Adds fabrication and culture complexity",
      "examples": "Sono et al. 2026",
      "source": "https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2521560123"
    }
  ]
}